IN DEFENCE OF IONIC COLLOIDAL SILVER
This hypothesis is posted at
http://www.health2us.com/transport.htm
and reads as follows:

Biologic Transport of Silver Ions!

Those that say silver ions complex with stomach acid to produce mostly useless compounds, have not looked at the big picture, of biologic ion transport!

Digestion and absorption begins in the mouth!

Metallic ions, either free or disassociated from dissolved soluble salts are both absorbed sublingually and/or isolated by ligands in the saliva, usually metalloproteins. Metallothionein (MT) is a relatively small molecule that binds heavy metals including silver, cadmium, copper and zinc, and is made by most cells in our body. Your saliva has over 200 different proteins and fully one third of body proteins are metalloproteins ie. carrying metallic ions. Thus, reactive ions (missing one or more electrons) can be transported past the stomach and thru the circulatory system without local reactions. Metal ion substitution permits even a zinc metalloprotein to take up the silver ion and release the zinc ion. The free, ionized zinc, which would be toxic if permitted to accumulate, binds to a metal regulatory element on the promoter region of the metallothionein gene and "turns on" the synthesis of more metallothionein.

Silver exporting ATPase Hydrolases: Act on acid anhydrides, Catalysing trans-membrane movement of substances! The ion pump mechanism utilizes energy from ATP to force ions thru a cell membrane, verses the passive diffusion, in which case the protein (on the cell) that allows this transport is called an ion channel.

Proteins include: Enzymes, Neuro-transmitters and some hormones, antibodies, ion channels, receptor sites, etc.

The mammalian form of MT appears to have the principal physiological role of providing a homeostatic function for copper and zinc. They are able to distribute these metal ions when required for the synthesis of metal-dependant cellular compounds. They have been referred to as "metal transfer agents" because of their role in depositing or removing (Ed: a specific case) zinc from zinc-dependant proteins.

Metallothionein (MT) is a relatively small molecule that binds heavy metals including silver, cadmium, copper and zinc, and is made by most cells in our body. Its production can be induced in the intestinal cells where it is thought to help keep us from absorbing a lot of toxic heavy metals such as cadmium. MT is also thought to be involved in the regulation of the cellular concentration of the essential minerals copper and zinc. The lining of our blood vessels is made up of a specific cell type called endothelial cells. Whereas the intestinal cell is the first barrier to the absorption of minerals, the endothelial cells are the secondary barrier to getting minerals into our tissues and organs.

Cells are constantly pumping ions in and out through their plasma membranes. In fact, more than half the energy that our bodies consume is used by cells to drive the protein pumps in the brain that do nothing else but transport ions across plasma membranes of nerve cells. How can ions be transported across membranes that are effectively impermeable to them? Cells contain proteins that are embedded in the lipid bilayer of their plasma membranes and extend from one side of the membrane through to the other. Such transmembrane proteins can function to effect ion transport in several ways.

As to the action of silver in the body, while there may be some catalytic action, silver ions will adhere to the sulphydral groups on bacterial cell walls and thus compromise the action of enzymes and so on, silver has also been found bonded to the DNA and RNA of bacterial cells, having presumably disrupted the cell wall enough to gain entry. Interestingly, it has also been found that if one removes the silver bonded to the cell wall of bacteria, that the bacteria is able to revive.

National Center for Environmental Research, Office of Research and Development, U.S. EPA.

Stuart A. Batterman (1), Khalil H. Mancy (1), Shuqin Wang (1), Lianzhong Zhang (1), James Warila (1), Ovadia Lev (2), Hillel Shuval (2), Badri Fattal (2)

Environmental Health Sciences, University of Michigan (1); Division of Environmental Science, Graduate School of Applied Science and Technology, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel (2)

Keywords: drinking water, exposure, risk, ecological effects, viruses, bacteria, pathogens.

Research Category: Drinking Water.

December 3, 2001.

This unchanged documentation has been collated and edited by Stuart Thomson, Director, Gaia Research Institute

The objectives of the research address two critical issues associated with the use of a new secondary disinfectant formulation utilizing hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and silver (Ag+): (1) the efficacy of the formulation to provide long-term residual disinfection, including the control of coliform bacteria, bacterial regrowth, and slime/biofilm control; and (2) the identification and quantification of disinfection by-products (DBPs) that may result from interactions with conventional chlorine- and oxidant-based disinfectants.

By combining two or more disinfection agents, it may be possible to lower concentrations of each component, reduce exposures, minimize the formation of toxic and undesirable DBPs, and minimize the health risks associated with disinfection. The approach is designed to provide a comprehensive evaluation of the microbial disinfection efficiency and DBP formation potential of the new disinfectant.

Progress Summary/Accomplishments:

The addition of the secondary disinfectant following the use of chlorine as a primary disinfectant produces very dramatic reductions in DBP formation (e.g., trihalomethanes [THMs] and haloacetic acids [HAAs]), an effect due to the reduction of chlorine to chloride by H2O2, which halts further reaction of chlorine with dissolved organic matter and other DBP precursors. When used with ozone, H2O2 also quenches formation of THMs and reduces, though not as strongly, formation of inorganic byproducts (e.g., bromate).

The inactivation performance of the combined disinfectant, its individual components, and a commercially available stabilized formulation of H2O2 and Ag+ have been evaluated for several bacteria and virus. Laboratory studies indicate that the combined disinfectant exhibits a synergistic action on the viability of E. coli, however, no increased virucidal action was observed. The H2O2 component induced a wide array of stress responses and bacteria deficient in the ability to activate central cellular stress responses and were hypersensitive to both H2O2 and Ag+.

These studies suggest that the combined disinfectant may be appropriate for use as long-term secondary residual disinfectant for relatively high quality water. Widespread use of the combined disinfectant, if practical, might result in potential for uptake in humans. Results suggest that risks are minimal under all likely scenarios.

Summary of Findings:

Disinfection Efficacy. Investigations emphasized the inactivation performance of a combined disinfectant comprised of hydrogen peroxide and silver or copper ions for target indicator microorganisms in both high quality water and for high total organic compound water (TOC = 6 mg/L). Die-off kinetics were evaluated upon exposure to hydrogen peroxide, silver or copper ions alone, and in combinations. Target or model organisms included bacteria (Escherichia coli-B and Escherichia coli-K12), bacteriophage (MS2), and a pathogenic virus (Polio 1).

The following key results were obtained:

• Bacterial Inactivation. The combination of hydrogen peroxide and silver ions, rather than each one separately, was the most effective in inactivating E. coli-B and E. coli-K12; silver ions alone were more effective than hydrogen peroxide alone. In general, the bacterial inactivation performance of the combined disinfectant was slow compared to chlorine-based disinfectants (e.g., 3-log reductions (99.9 percent) of E. coli-B at pH 7 and 24 C using 30-ppm hydrogen peroxide and 30-ppb silver ions (an optimized formulation) required an exposure of 88 min). Water quality significantly affected the inactivation of E. coli.

The first-order Chick Watson coefficient of inactivation of E. coli-B with water containing 6 mg/L TOC was reduced by three-fold compared to synthetic water (e.g., 0.078 vs. 0.024 L/min for exposure to 30 mg/L hydrogen peroxide and 30 ppb silver ions at pH 7 at ambient temperature). Inactivation performance of the combined disinfectant increased at basic pH (e.g., log activation increased by two-fold by increasing the pH from 6 to 9 using the optimized formulation). Finally, inactivation performance increased with temperature (e.g., two-fold increase in log inactivation of E. coli resulted by increasing the temperature from 4 to 24 C for a 1-hour exposure to the optimized formulation).

The inactivation performance of hydrogen peroxide and copper ions showed much more significant synergistic effect for all combinations that were examined in comparison to the combined disinfectant using hydrogen peroxide and silver. For example, inactivation of E. coli-B at pH 7 after 1 hour of exposure at room temperature to 125 ppb copper ions showed less than 1-log reduction. However, 4.3 logs reduction were obtained during the same time interval in combination with 30 ppm hydrogen peroxide.

• Viral Inactivation. The combined disinfectant showed rather low viral inactivation kinetics. Approximately 6 hours were necessary to achieve 4 logs inactivation of MS2 bacteriophage at 24 C and pH 7 using a rather high concentration of the combined disinfectant (100 ppm hydrogen peroxide and 100 ppb silver ion). Inactivation of the MS2 virus was also achieved exclusively by the hydrogen peroxide ingredient. The virus was unaffected by the presence of the silver ions. The inactivation of Polio 1 was even lower. A 0.15 log reduction was obtained by 12 hours exposure to the combined disinfectant, again using 100 ppm hydrogen peroxide and 100 ppb silver ion.
  
• Biofilm Control. The combined disinfectant using 30 ppm hydrogen peroxide and 30 ppb silver ion was as effective in preventing film growth as hydrogen peroxide alone (30 ppm). Both compositions showed significant biofilm prevention as compared to silver ions alone. However, biofilm control using approximately 1 ppm of chlorine was considerably higher than that for the combined disinfectant. The bacteria that survived after 48 hours disinfection with hydrogen peroxide and the combined disinfectant showed high catalase activity, hinting that hydrogen peroxide and the combined disinfectant may have a rather limited effectiveness in continuous operation.

Disinfection By-Products. Addition of the secondary disinfectant (silver or copper plus hydrogen peroxide) following the use of chlorine or ozone as a primary disinfectant produces very dramatic reductions in DBP formation. With chlorine, the secondary disinfectant quenches the formation of trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs), two sets of DBPs that have been priorities for control and regulation. This quenching occurs due to the reduction of chlorine to chloride by hydrogen peroxide, which halts further reaction of chlorine with dissolved organic matter and other DBP precursors. The reduction in DBPs resulting from the primary and secondary disinfectants applies to a wide range of temperatures, pH, bromide concentrations, and DOC levels. When used with ozone, hydrogen peroxide also quenches formation of THMs, though not as strongly. Preliminary results suggest that an ammonia addition at the beginning of ozonation followed by hydrogen peroxide/silver ion addition shortly afterwards could further reduce by-product formation.

The addition of hydrogen peroxide appears to form several aldehydes at low levels that resemble those formed by the ozonation of water. Aldehyde formation is a strong function of hydrogen peroxide concentration, and no formation is observed with hydrogen peroxide concentrations below 4 mg/L.

Risks and Related Studies. Widespread use of the combined disinfectant might result in potential for uptake of silver ions by humans. Results suggest that risks are minimal under all likely scenarios. Other risk-related studies describe the loss of trihalomethanes. The results can be used to improve exposure assessments of DBPs.

Potential Practical Applications. The experimental research showed that the combined disinfectant offers synergistic effects on the inactivation of E. coli that generally increased with higher temperature and pH and decreased in secondary and tertiary effluents; however, no increased virucidal action was observed and biofilm control efficacy over long periods was limited. Used as a secondary disinfectant following either chlorination or ozonation, the hydrogen peroxide provided a strong quenching effect on the major by-products. These studies suggest that the combined disinfectant may be appropriate for use as long-term secondary residual disinfectant for relatively high quality water in some circumstances. This research also suggests that a multiple component disinfectant combination applied sequentially (e.g., ozone, ammonia, and hydrogen peroxide) might provide effective inactivation and reduced by-product formation.

Publications/Presentations:


Articles in Peer Reviewed Journals

Glezer V, Harris B, Tal N, Iosefzon B, Lev O. Hydrolysis of haloacetonitriles: linear free energy relationship, kinetics and products. Water Research 1999;33(8):1938-1948.

Armon R, Laot N, Lev O, Shuval H, Fattal B. Controlling biofilm formation by hydrogen peroxide and silver combined disinfectant. Water Science and Technology 2000;42(1-2):187-192.

Batterman S, Zhang L, Wang S. Quenching of disinfection by-product formation in chlorinated drinking water by hydrogen peroxide. Water Research 2000;34(5):1652-1658.

Batterman S, Huang A-T, Zhang L, Wang S. Reduction of Ingestion exposure to trihalomethanes due to volatilization. Environmental Science and Technology 2000;34(20): 4418-4424.

Liberti L, Lopez A, Notamicola M, Bamea N, Pedahzur R, Fattal B. Comparison of advanced disinfecting methods for municipal wastewater reuse in agriculture. Water Science and Technology 2000;42(1-2):215-220.

Pedahzur R, Katzenelson D, Barnea N, Lev O, Shuval HI, Fattal B, Ulitzur S. The efficacy of long-lasting residual drinking water disinfectants based on hydrogen peroxide and silver. Water Science and Technology 2000;42(1-2):293-298.

Batterman S, Zhang L, Wang S, Franzblau A. Partition coefficients for trihalomethanes in blood, water and human milk and the potential for infant exposure. Science of the Total Environment (in press, 2001).

Batterman S, Zhang L, Wang S. Reduction of bromate and bromoform formation by hydrogen peroxide during ozonation of bromide containing waters. Water Research (submitted, 2001).

Batterman S, Zhang L, Wang S. Formation of aldehydes and ketones during disinfection of water using hydrogen peroxide (submitted, 2001).

Warila J, Batterman S. A probabilistic model for silver bioaccumulation in aquatic systems and assessment of human health risks. Journal of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 2001;20(2):432-441.

Presentations

Batterman S, Zhang L, Wang S, Mancy K. Disinfection by-products in drinking water systems. Presented at the NSF/USEPA Conference on Drinking Water Small Scale Systems, Washington, DC, May 10-13, 1998.

Zhang L, Batterman S, Wang S, Mancy K. Reduction in disinfectant by-product formation using chlorine as a primary disinfectant and a silver-hydrogen peroxide formulation a secondary disinfectant. Presented at the 21st Midwest Environmental Chemistry Workshop, Ann Arbor, MI, October 16-18, 1998.

Batterman S. Evaluation of the efficacy of a new secondary disinfectant formulation using hydrogen peroxide and silver and the formation of disinfection by-products resulting from interactions with conventional disinfectants. Presented at the STAR Grants Drinking Water Program Review Meeting, Washington, DC, December 8-9, 1998.

Batterman S. Evaluation of the Efficacy of a new secondary disinfectant formulation using hydrogen peroxide and silver and the formulation of disinfection by-products resulting from interactions with conventional disinfectants. Presented at the U.S. EPA Research Drinking Water Progress Review, Silver Spring, MD, February 22-23, 2001.

Batterman S, Huang A-T, Zhang L, Wang S. Volatilization of trihalomethanes during storage and consumption of tap water. In: Proceedings of the Exposure Assessment for Disinfection By-Products in Epidemiological Studies International Workshop, Ottawa, Canada, May 7-10, 2000.

Warila J, Batterman S. A probabilistic model for the bioaccumulation of silver in aquatic systems. Presented at the 21st Midwest Environmental Chemistry Workshop, Ann Arbor, MI, October 16-18, 1998.

Warila J, Batterman S. A probabilistic tropic level model for silver bioaccumulation in aquatic systems. 19th Annual Meeting, Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, Charlotte, NC, November 15-19, 1998.

Other Publications

Katzenelson D. Kinetics of water disinfection using hydrogen peroxide and silver ions separately and in combination. M.S. Thesis, Department of Environmental Sciences, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel, 2001.

Pedahzur R. The effect of physico-chemical factors on the bactericidal properties of hydrogen peroxide and metals—luminescent bacteria as a model. Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Environmental Sciences, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel, 2001.

Warila J. Ecological risk assessment of silver effluents in aquatic systems. M.S. Thesis, Environmental Health Sciences, University of Michigan, September 1998.

Warila J. Ecological risk assessment of silver effluents in aquatic systems. M.S. Thesis, Environmental and Industrial Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, December 1998.

Dear Editor

With reference to the recent letter by Mike McCarthy concerning colloidal silver, whilst Mike is to be applauded for his concern and vigilance in the public interest, as a role-player in the introduction of colloidal silver to South Africa, I would welcome an opportunity to balance your reader’s current perspective by presenting pertinent information that Mr McCarthy, in his zeal to make his many valid points regarding exaggerated health claims, has overlooked.

Modern electrolytic colloidal silver is an oligodynamic (effective in ultra-low concentration) naturally microbicidal earth element by virtue of disabling only the metabolic enzymes of anaerobic unicellular micro-organisms, yet is uniquely harmless to mammals at effective concentrations (Thurman R et al, 1st International Conference on Gold & Silver in Medicine, Silver Institute, Wash, 1989). Modern soil depletion, food processing and water treatment (flocculation and filtration) mitigate against reliably receiving adequate dietary amounts of this protective element, which constitutes about 0.07ppm (parts per million) in the earth's crust and until fairly recently, was readily available via the food chain and was supplemented by food related silverware without any epidemiological evidence of harm.

Rosemary Jacobs, the most popularised argyria victim, who is used to demonise colloidal silver, was poisoned more than forty years ago by "silver nose drops of unknown composition" (NEJM, 340(20), 1999). There are no cases of argyria in modern medical history as a result of electro-colloidal silver, despite its popularity. All reference to toxicities, on careful checking, leads directly to industrial exposures or abuse of orthodoxy sanctioned, now discontinued medical silver products, usually not even colloidal silver and if so, always by a defunct grind method, and in cases of severe toxicities, intravenous injections in gram-plus quantities in animal experiments (US EPA, Integrated Risk Information System, “Silver”, 1998). The key to the safety and efficacy of modern colloidal/ionic silver is its atomic and sub-atomic particle size and hence greater individual number and total active surface area.

Exaggerated commercial health claims for colloidal silver use against serious medical conditions and OTC or self-treatment without adequate supervision or well-informed protocols, adds legitimacy to regulator’s concerns, yet much misinformation about colloidal silver toxicity has its genesis in the protectionist pharma-cartel and its bought and / or ideologically biased lap-dog regulatory agencies. As an example, consider this paradox, forced upon the Australian Therapeutic Goods Administration when it recently attempted to regulate colloidal silver as a medicine because of “significant toxicity and no legitimate uses” but had to amend its own illogical legislation so as to effectively exempt colloidal silver provided it is sold for use in the “purification or treatment of drinking water without therapeutic claims” (Commonwealth of Australia, Special Gazette No S 486, 20 December 2002). The obvious absurdity is that a substance cannot be toxic and useless only when sold with therapeutic claims, yet safe and efficacious if added to drinking water at the same approved concentrations, in this instance, over an entire lifetime.

Some foods accumulate silver, eg mushrooms may boost silver consumption up to between 200 to 300ppm per day. Approximately 10% of orally-ingested silver enters systemic circulation and of that, up to 98% is gathered up by metallothioneins, which transport, store and detoxify essential and nonessential trace metals (Silver, The Healthful Metal, Silver Institute, Wash, December 31, 1999). Argyria, a bluish-grey discoloration of the skin, although not aesthetic, is extremely rare, is “non-pathogenic” / “medically benign” and a daily ingestion dose of 1-30gram would be required to induce the condition (Fowler B, Nordberg G, “Silver”, in Handbook on the Toxicology of Metals, Friberg L et al, eds. Elsevier Sci Pub, Vol 2, 521-31, 1986); (US EPA, Integrated Risk Information System: ‘Silver’, 1998). Approximately 3.5gram daily over an entire lifetime will be required to cause argyria, according to a year 2000 estimate by international trace mineral expert, Prof Alexander Schauss, PhD, Director of Life Sciences at John Hopkins University, in response to FDA proposals, which is 10,000 times that advocated.

Ionic/atomic silver is an effective antimicrobial at concentrations astronomical orders of magnitude below what is harmful to higher life forms. Concentrations necessary to sterilise drinking water (or by extension, body fluids – we are 70% water) contaminated with pathogens are 40-200 gamma / .04-.2ppm (1ppm = 1000 gamma) (Thomson N, Comprehensive Inorganic Chemistry, Pergamon, NY, 1973). Most colloidal silver available in South Africa is generated by a water purification device from the Gaia Research Institute, producing 1ppm of silver (and possibly a suggested microbicidal synergism with 5-15 drops of hydrogen peroxide). One teaspoon (5ml) of 1ppm colloidal silver in a glass (250ml) of water equals 20ppb. Since drinking water guidelines relate to lifetime exposure for the most susceptible sub-groups, calculated at 2 litres a day over an entire lifetime, one could safely consume 8 glasses each with 5 teaspoons (25 ml) of 1 ppm of colloidal silver every day without risk of argyria, the only and purely hypothetical risk to users. Most commonly used is a mere teaspoon in a glass of water 3 or 4 times daily.

Colloidal Silver and hydrogen peroxide, especially in combination, exhibit significant microbial inactivation at concentrations that pose no health risk according to the EEC, WHO and US EPA. Several countries, including Switzerland, Germany and Australia have given approval for the use of colloidal silver and hydrogen peroxide as a drinking water disinfectant. The EEC and Israel Ministry of Health have specifically approved the use of colloidal silver as a drinking water disinfectant at an MCL (Maximum Contaminant Level) of 80ppb (Pedahzur, R et al, Water Sci Technol, 31(5-6), 1995). Widespread use might result in potential for uptake of silver ions by humans, but research suggests that: “risks are minimal under all likely scenarios” (Final Report: Evaluation of the Efficacy of a New Secondary Disinfectant Formulation Using Hydrogen Peroxide and Silver. US EPA NNCER, Dec 3, 2001).

The USA EPA has declared that “silver does not cause adverse health effects” and set a MCL at 100 ppb for all drinking water. Recently an EU Drinking Water Standard proposed removing any upper limit for silver in drinking water, following the WHO’s Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, which states that: "it is not necessary to recommend any health-based guidelines for silver as it is not hazardous to human health" ("Silver Water Purification Systems Offer Reliable Alternative to Chlorine", The Silver Institute, Wash, March 25, 1997). The World Health Organisation still advocates 100ppb levels of silver for drinking water (Pelkonen K et al, Toxicology, 186(1-2), 2003). I shall resist arguing for the efficacy of colloidal silver against bacteria, viruses, spore-forming organisms, yeasts and mould fungi, since this should be beyond dispute. As mentioned previously, we are comprised of 75% water. By restoring and maintaining the integrity of that water, we restore and maintain the integrity of the body by freeing it of pathogens. Herein lies the paradox of philosophically diametrically opposed public health authorities both praising and demonizing the same substance. I shall leave it to the now informed reader to decide either way.

Stuart Thomson

Director, Gaia Research Institute, Knysna.